Terms Glossary

Definition and meaning of absolute majority: An absolute majority occurs when a single political party or candidate wins more than 50% of the total number of votes cast. This often happens in the two-party system, in which one party is able to secure more than half of the votes. Absolute majorities can also occur in multi-party systems, under certain electoral conditions.

For advocates of a more independent political system, frequent absolute majorities in elections can be concerning. When one political party consistently achieves an absolute majority, it can lead to extended periods of single-party dominance. This may reduce political diversity and limit the representation of alternative viewpoints in government. The lack of competition can also lead to complacency and reduce the incentive for the dominant party to innovate or address the needs of all constituents.

It is important to note, however, that an absolute majority does not guarantee a party or candidate victory in an election. This is because many factors — such as the presence of third-party candidates, electoral rules, or voting systems such as the Electoral College — can still influence the outcome of an election.

Learn more about the difference between absolute majorities and simple majorities on our blog.

Definition and meaning of amendment: An amendment is a formal change or addition made to a law, document, or constitution. Amendments are commonly used to update, clarify, or improve existing laws, or to introduce new provisions that reflect the evolving needs and values of society. Although amendments can be used to update any contract or piece of legislation, they are most commonly discussed in the context of the U.S. Constitution. 

Throughout American history, amendments have played an important role in shaping our democracy. Altogether, there have been 27 amendments added to the U.S. Constitution. The first 10 amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, were ratified on December 15, 1791. The most recent amendment to the constitution was ratified on May 7, 1992, and regulates when changes can be made to Congressional salaries. 

Amendments can address an array of issues, ranging from protecting individual rights to altering governmental structures. 

Here are a few famous examples of amendments:

• The First Amendment protects the freedom of speech, religion, and the press. 

• The Second Amendment ensures the right to bear arms. 

• The Fourteenth Amendment guarantees equal protection under the law for all citizens. 

• The Nineteenth Amendment guarantees citizens the right to vote regardless of sex.

Amendments serve as powerful tools for enacting change and allowing for the continuous evolution of governance. 

An amendment can be proposed either by Congress, with a two-thirds majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate, or by a national convention called for by two-thirds of state legislatures. Once proposed, the amendment must be ratified by three-fourths of the states. Eighteen states allow citizens to propose changes to their constitutions in the form of initiated constitutional amendments. 

By allowing citizens and legislators to propose and ratify amendments, the amendment process helps to ensure that the U.S. Constitution remains a living document that is responsive to the needs of each generation.

Definition and meaning of audit: An audit is an official verification of accounts and records performed by someone independent of the organization being examined. Audits can be conducted on a voluntary or mandatory basis. In many situations, they are essential to ensuring accuracy and transparency. Examples of audits include those conducted by the Federal Election Commission (FEC) and the Internal Revenue Service (IRS).

There are several types of audits beyond these examples:

• Financial audits examine the accuracy of an organization's financial statements and ensure they are free from material misstatement. 

• Compliance audits determine whether an organization is adhering to regulatory guidelines and legal requirements. 

• Operational audits evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of an organization's operations and procedures. 

• Performance audits assess whether programs or activities are achieving their intended outcomes. 

• Information system audits review the controls and security of an organization’s IT infrastructure. 

• Environmental audits examine the impact of an organization’s operations on the environment and ensure compliance with environmental regulations.

Definition and meaning of appropriation: Appropriation is the process of allocating funds for specific governmental or organizational purposes. In the context of American politics, appropriation provides government agencies with the authority to allocate funds for specific purposes. Each year, Congress passes twelve appropriation acts, in addition to supplemental appropriation acts. Appropriations may be a definite or indefinite amount. 

Appropriations are categorized into several types, including annual, multi-year, no year, expired, closed, and revolving funds. Annual appropriations are provided for a single fiscal year, while multi-year appropriations are available for a specified period beyond one year. No-year appropriations remain available until they are expended or rescinded. Expired appropriations are no longer available for new obligations but can be used to pay existing commitments. Closed appropriations are funds that are no longer available for any purpose, typically after five years. Revolving funds are a type of appropriation used for continuous, cyclical operations where the income generated is used to fund ongoing expenses.

Definition and meaning of appointed incumbent: An appointed incumbent is an individual who has been appointed to an office, typically by the government, rather than being elected or voted in by the public. This system grants the government the authority to select officeholders, bypassing the electoral process. 

Appointed incumbents exist for several reasons:

• First, appointments can ensure that highly specialized or technical positions are filled by individuals with the requisite expertise, which might not be guaranteed through a general election. 

• Second, in emergency situations or when an elected official can no longer serve in office, appointments can provide a swift and stable transition. 

• Third, in some political systems, appointments are used to balance representation among different regions, groups, or political factions, promoting inclusivity and stability.

While political appointments can be efficient in filling positions quickly, they may also lead to concerns about the suitability and qualifications of the appointee. Appointed incumbents often face criticism for lacking the legitimacy that comes from being elected by the people. 

The practice of appointing officials can be perceived as cronyism, where appointments are based on political favoritism rather than merit. Consequently, appointed incumbents might not represent the best interests of the public or possess the necessary skills for the role. Additionally, this system can reduce accountability and transparency, as the appointees are beholden to those who appointed them rather than the electorate.

Definition and meaning of anarchism: Anarchism is a political ideology that rejects the concept of a coercive government, advocating instead for collective self-governance and mutual aid. Central to anarchism is the belief that humans are capable of organizing themselves into systems of order and justice without the need for oppressive and hierarchical state structures. Anarchists oppose the concentration of power in any form, whether in the hands of a government, a corporation, or any other centralized authority. They argue that such concentrations of power inevitably lead to exploitation and oppression.

Anarchism promotes the idea that individuals should have the freedom to govern themselves and make decisions through cooperative and voluntary associations. This can include communal living arrangements, cooperative workplaces, and decentralized networks of decision-making, all designed to ensure that power is distributed equitably and that everyone has a voice in the decisions that affect their lives.

Historically, anarchism has been associated with various social movements and has influenced a wide range of political actions and philosophies. Notable figures in anarchist thought include Mikhail Bakunin, Emma Goldman, and Peter Kropotkin, each of whom contributed to the development of anarchist theory and practice. While controversial, anarchism continues to inspire contemporary movements, including some advocating for social justice, environmental sustainability, and economic equality. Anarchism emphasizes direct action and grassroots organizing as a means to achieve these goals​.

Definition and meaning of the American Independent Party: The American Independent Party is a far-right political party founded in 1967 by Bill Shearer and his wife, Eileen Knowland Shearer. In the 1968 presidential election, the American Independent Party nominated George Wallace, who secured the electoral votes of five states. Since then, no third-party candidate has been able to win as many electoral votes as Wallace. 

In 1976, the party split into the modern American Independent Party and the American Party. Then, the American Independent Party transitioned into the Populist Party during the early 1980s. From 1992 to 2008, it was known as the California affiliate of the national Constitution Party. In 2008, another split occurred due to conflicting stances on U.S. foreign policy and Constitution Party founder Howard Phillip’s influence on the state party. The faction recognizing Jim King as chairman of the American Independent Party remained in the Constitution Party while the faction recognizing Ed Noonan joined a new party called America’s Party. The Noonan faction has remained in control of the American Independent Party’s operations and ballot access. 

Want to learn more about the American Independent Party? Read this spotlight on an AIP candidate running for office in California.

Definition and meaning of American exceptionalism: American exceptionalism is the belief that the United States is unique among all other nations in the world due to its political, economic, and cultural values. This concept often manifests as a belief in the nation's exceptional or superior ability to lead the world and serve as a role model for other countries. Proponents of American exceptionalism argue that the United States has a unique mission to promote democracy and freedom worldwide.

In political discourse, American exceptionalism is frequently invoked to assert that the United States is the world's leader and has a responsibility to enforce its values globally. This belief has historically been used to justify various foreign policies and interventions, underpinning actions such as the spread of democratic ideals and economic systems. For example, the idea has been cited to support U.S. involvement in international conflicts, diplomatic efforts, and foreign aid initiatives.

Critics of American exceptionalism argue that it can lead to an overreach of U.S. power and a disregard for the sovereignty of other nations. They contend that this belief may foster a sense of superiority and entitlement, potentially leading to unilateral actions that do not always consider the perspectives and needs of other countries.

Overall, American exceptionalism is a powerful and influential idea that continues to shape U.S. domestic and foreign policies, reflecting the nation's self-perception and its role on the global stage. 

Definition and meaning of Alderman: An alderman is an elected member of a local government who represents a specific ward or district within a municipality. Aldermen or alderpersons are responsible for enacting local laws, ordinances, and policies that impact daily life. They participate in city council meetings, debate and vote on legislation, and allocate funds to projects within their wards. Key areas of focus include budgeting, zoning, and public safety.

Serving as a liaison between residents and the municipal government, aldermen listen to constituents' concerns, advocate on their behalf, and address local issues such as infrastructure and community development. Through town hall meetings and direct communication, they ensure their constituents' voices are heard.

Elected for terms typically ranging from two to four years, aldermen are committed to accessibility, responsiveness, and fostering transparent, accountable local government.  Though aldermen have traditionally been affiliated with the major political parties, the role has seen a rise in independent candidates, including reform-minded individuals advocating for alternatives to the two-party system.

Learn more about alderpersons and how to run for alderman on our blog.

Definition and meaning of affidavit: An affidavit is a written statement, made under oath, that is used as evidence in a court of law. It is typically used when a witness is unable to appear in court, or when a party wants to provide a written statement for the court. The affidavit is signed by the affiant (the person making the statement) in front of a notary or other authorized official. Affidavits are often used in situations where the truth of a matter needs to be verified outside of a court setting.

Beyond court settings, affidavits are frequently utilized in administrative procedures and governmental processes. For instance, they can be required for passport applications, residency verifications, or to attest to the authenticity of documents. In business, affidavits might be needed to verify compliance with regulatory requirements or to confirm the truthfulness of financial statements.

The use of affidavits provides a means to present verified information without the need for in-person testimony, which can save time and resources for both the court and the parties involved. However, because an affidavit is a sworn statement, providing false information can result in serious legal consequences, including charges of perjury. As such, affidavits are a powerful tool in the legal system, ensuring that truthful and accurate information is presented in a formal, verifiable manner.

Definition and meaning of American Solidarity Party: The American Solidarity Party (ASP) is a Christian democratic political party in the United States, founded in 2011 and officially incorporated in 2016. It represents a unique blend of social conservatism and economic interventionism, drawing heavily from Christian democratic traditions, Catholic social teaching, and Neo-Calvinist theology. The party's ideology combines fiscal center-left policies with socially center-right stances.

The ASP's platform is built on four pillars: life, justice, peace, and planet. It advocates for the sanctity of human life, opposing abortion, euthanasia, and capital punishment. The party emphasizes the importance of the traditional family, advocating for policies that support family and community structures.

Economically, the ASP supports a social market economy and advocates for widespread economic participation and ownership. This includes support for universal healthcare, worker ownership, and management of production. The party's economic policies are fiscally progressive, aiming to ensure a fair distribution of wealth and a robust social safety net.

In the realm of foreign policy, the ASP adopts a non-interventionist stance, promoting peace and diplomacy over military action. It supports foreign aid and a sympathetic approach to immigration, balancing secure borders with a commitment to human dignity.

Electoral reform is another key focus, with the ASP advocating for proportional representation, ranked choice voting, and fair ballot access for independent candidates. The party aims to combat political oligarchy and gridlock, promoting more inclusive and representative democratic processes.

The ASP's impact as a third party has been growing, particularly in states like California, Ohio, and Texas. While it has yet to achieve significant electoral success, the ASP's emphasis on social justice, environmental conservation, and economic fairness resonates with a segment of the electorate seeking an alternative to mainstream political options. The American Solidarity Party contributes to the broader discourse on how to create a more equitable and just society, demonstrating the potential role of third parties in shaping American politics.

Definition and meaning of anonymous contributions: Anonymous contributions refer to monetary or non-monetary donations given to a cause or organization without the identity of the donor being disclosed or made public. They are a form of philanthropy that allows for individuals to support causes or organizations of their choice without fear of backlash or judgement, and provide a way for people to contribute to social and political causes without having to face any personal consequences. Anonymous contributions are important because they allows for individuals or organizations to support causes or organizations that they may not be able to support publicly or openly. Anonymous contributions provide a way for people to voice their opinion on certain issues without fear of repercussions or social stigma. They also provide a way for people to donate to causes or organizations that they may not be comfortable publicly endorsing. For example, an individual may not want to be associated with a particular political campaign but may still want to support it financially. Anonymous contributions provide a way for them to do this without having to make their identity known. Anonymous contributions can also be used to fund research or projects that may not have access to traditional sources of funding. By providing a way for people to support causes without having to disclose their identity, anonymous contributions provide a means to fund projects that may not be possible using traditional sources of funding. Overall, anonymous contributions provide a way for individuals and organizations to support causes or organizations of their choice without fear of backlash or judgement. They also provide a way for people to fund projects or research that may not have access to traditional sources of funding.

Definition and meaning of attorney general: The attorney general is a high-ranking government official who is responsible for providing legal advice to the government and prosecuting criminal cases on behalf of the state or federal government. The attorney general is the chief legal advisor to the president, the U.S. Congress, and the federal courts. In addition, the attorney general is responsible for protecting the public from fraud, abuse, and other illegal activities. In a reform-minded society, the attorney general should strive to be an independent and impartial advocate for justice, free from political pressure and influence. The attorney general should provide independent legal advice and serve as a check on the executive branch. They should be dedicated to protecting the rights and freedoms of all citizens and prosecuting individuals who violate the law. They should serve as a watchdog for the people, ensuring that all citizens are treated fairly and that the government acts in their best interest.

Definition and meaning of abuse of power: The phrase "abuse of power" refers to actions by people in positions of authority that exceed the limits of their roles and are intended to benefit their own interests at the expense of others. The abuse of power can happen in a variety of contexts, including in the workplace, religious institutions, and government.

In the context of government and politics, abuse of power can look like a leader or elected official misusing their powers, potentially leading to unfair advantages, the suppression of dissent, and a violation of the basic principles of justice and equality.

In American government, the system of checks and balances is designed to prevent abuse of power. This system ensures that no single branch of government (executive, legislative, or judicial) can have too much power. Each branch has some oversight over the others. However, abuses of power can still occur when officials act outside their lawful boundaries or use their political position for personal gain.

Examples of abuses of power in politics include:

• Accepting bribes in exchange for favorable legislative decisions

• Manipulating legislation or public policy to benefit specific groups

• Obstructing justice by interfering with investigations or judicial processes

• Using public resources, such as staff or equipment, for personal gain

• Deliberately withholding or manipulating information that should be public, in order to maintain power or hide wrongdoing

One notable example in American politics was the Watergate scandal of the 1970s, where President Richard Nixon and his administration engaged in illegal activities, including spying on political opponents and obstructing investigations into those activities. This scandal led to Nixon's resignation under the threat of impeachment. This example showcases how abuse of power can lead to severe consequences for elected officials.

When citizens realize that an abuse of power is taking place, they might pursue legal action, demand public accountability, or vote out the offending politician at the end of their term.

Definition and meaning of abuse of discretion: In the political context, abuse of discretion refers to the improper use of judgment or decision-making power by government officials or public bodies. This occurs when an official exceeds the bounds of their legal authority, acts in a way that no reasonable official would, or makes decisions based on improper motives or irrelevant considerations.

In democratic systems, public officials are often vested with a certain degree of discretion to enable them to make decisions in complex, variable circumstances. However, this discretion is intended to be exercised within the framework of the law, guided by principles of fairness, impartiality, and the public interest. Abuse of discretion happens when these principles are disregarded.

Abuse of discretion can manifest in various forms, such as:

1. Arbitrary or Capricious Actions: Making decisions that are random, inconsistent, or unpredictable, without considering legal standards or the merits of the situation.

2. Bias or Favoritism: Showing undue favor towards certain individuals or groups, often for personal gain, at the expense of others.

3. Exceeding Authority: Taking actions or making decisions beyond the scope of the official's legal power.

4. Failure to Consider Relevant Factors: Ignoring important aspects of an issue that should reasonably influence the decision-making process.

5. Relying on Improper Factors: Basing decisions on irrelevant or inappropriate considerations, such as personal relationships, political affiliations, or bribery.

Abuse of discretion undermines the principles of good governance and the rule of law, leading to decisions that serve private or partisan interests rather than the public good. This can erode public trust in government, lead to inefficient or unjust policies, and perpetuate corruption.

Countering the abuse of discretion requires a multifaceted approach, involving:

1. Strengthening Legal Frameworks: Enacting and enforcing laws that clearly define the limits of discretion and the consequences of abusing it.

2. Enhancing Oversight and Accountability: Establishing robust systems to monitor, review, and challenge government decisions, ensuring they comply with legal and ethical standards.

3. Promoting Transparency: Making the decision-making process more open and accessible, allowing for public scrutiny and participation.

4. Cultivating a Culture of Integrity: Encouraging the values of honesty, responsibility, and public service among government officials.

5. Empowering Independent Bodies: Supporting positions and institutions like ombudsmen, anti-corruption agencies, and the judiciary to act independently in investigating and addressing instances of abuse of discretion.

In summary, abuse of discretion in politics is a significant barrier to fair and effective governance. It represents a deviation from the principles of democracy and the rule of law, often leading to corruption and a breakdown in public trust. Addressing this issue is crucial for building a political environment where decisions are made ethically, transparently, and in the best interests of the public.

Definition and meaning of approval voting: Approval voting is an electoral system that allows voters to express support for as many candidates as they wish, rather than being limited to selecting just one. Under this system, voters simply mark the candidates that they approve of on their ballot, and the candidate with the most votes wins the election.

One of the main advantages of approval voting is that it allows voters to support multiple candidates without worrying about "wasting" their vote or splitting the vote in a way that could benefit the candidate they like the least. This can be particularly appealing to supporters of independent or third-party candidates, who may feel that the two major parties do not adequately represent their views.

There are a few examples of approval voting in action. In 2018, Fargo, North Dakota became the first city in the United States to use approval voting in a municipal election. According to a survey conducted by FairVote, a majority of Fargo voters found the system easy to use and preferred it to the traditional first-past-the-post system.

Other places that have experimented with approval voting include the city of St. Louis, Missouri, as well as a number of professional societies and organizations. In these cases, approval voting has been credited with helping to promote more diverse and representative leadership, as it allows voters to support candidates from a range of different backgrounds and perspectives.

Overall, approval voting is an innovative and flexible electoral system that gives voters more control over their ballots and allows them to express support for multiple candidates if they choose. By breaking free from the constraints of the traditional two-party system, it can help to promote greater diversity and representation in the political process.

Definition and meaning of adjourn: To adjourn is to conclude a meeting or session with the intention of resuming it at a later time. In a political context, adjournment refers to the formal process of ending a legislative or governmental session temporarily, often with the plan to reconvene at a specified date or time. This can apply to various types of meetings, such as sessions of Congress, state legislatures, or local government councils.

The act of adjourning can be done for a variety of reasons, including the completion of a particular agenda item, the need for a break, or the necessity to address urgent matters before continuing. During an adjournment, the business or discussions that were underway are paused, and the meeting is officially suspended. When the meeting resumes, it continues from where it left off, with the previous discussions and decisions still in place.

While adjournment is a standard parliamentary procedure, it can sometimes be misused to hinder or delay progress. For instance, adjournments may be strategically used to stall discussions or avoid contentious decisions — especially in political contexts where parties might want to delay the passage of legislation or the resolution of contentious issues. This can lead to significant delays in the legislative process, preventing timely action on important matters. In some cases, repeated adjournments can be employed as a tactic to run out the clock on debates, thereby circumventing democratic scrutiny or accountability. 

Definition and meaning of absentee voting: Absentee voting is a method that allows voters to participate in an election without having to be physically present at a polling place or vote center on election day. This option is particularly valuable for individuals who, for various reasons, cannot make it to the polls on election day. To cast an absentee ballot, a voter must be registered to vote. They can then submit their ballot by mail.

The practice of absentee voting has a long history in the United States, dating back to the Civil War. During that time, soldiers who were away from home needed a way to exercise their right to vote, leading to the establishment of absentee voting procedures.

To receive an absentee ballot, a registered voter must request one from their state government. The requirements for obtaining an absentee ballot vary by state. Some states allow no-excuse absentee voting, meaning that any registered voter can request an absentee ballot without providing a reason. In contrast, other states require voters to provide a valid excuse, such as a disability, work commitments during voting hours, or religious restrictions, to be eligible for absentee voting.

To maintain the integrity of absentee voting, some states have implemented additional requirements. These may include asking voters to submit a photocopy of their ID along with their absentee ballot or requiring the ballot to be signed in the presence of a notary. These measures are designed to prevent election fraud and ensure that each vote cast via absentee ballot is legitimate.

Definition and meaning of authoritarianism: Authoritarianism is a form of governance where political power is concentrated in a single ruler or ruling party, with little to no opposition or accountability. It is characterized by a top-down decision-making process, where citizens are subjected to a strict set of laws, regulations, and rules with little to no input or dissent. This form of government has been historically wielded by oppressive regimes who have sought to control their citizens and maintain a homogenous population. Authoritarianism is the antithesis of democracy, where the people have a role in governing and shaping their own societies. It is a system that allows for a few individuals to have a large amount of power and control over the masses. This power can be used to shape policies, laws, and regulations that serve only the interests of the ruling party, while ignoring the needs of the populace. Examples of authoritarianism include the regimes of Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, and Joseph Stalin. All three dictators used their authoritarian power to control and manipulate their citizens, and their policies led to the suppression of freedom, civil liberties, and human rights. In today's world, authoritarianism is still prevalent in many forms. From the two-party system in the United States, to the government of North Korea, authoritarianism is still a major issue that must be addressed. To counteract this, reform-minded individuals and organizations are advocating for more independent candidates and an end to the two-party system.

Definition and meaning of auditor: In the United States, an Auditor is an elected or appointed official responsible for conducting financial and performance audits of government agencies and programs. The specific duties of the Auditor vary from state to state, but generally include reviewing financial records, identifying waste or fraud, and ensuring that government agencies are operating efficiently and effectively.

Many states have an elected Auditor as part of their state government. The exact title and responsibilities of the Auditor may vary by state, but in general, they play a key role in ensuring that government agencies are accountable to taxpayers and that public funds are being used appropriately.

Some states that have an elected Auditor include California, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin. However, it's important to note that this list may not be comprehensive and that the specific duties and responsibilities of the Auditor can vary widely depending on the state.

Definition and meaning of agriculture commissioner: In the United States, an Agriculture Commissioner is an elected or appointed official responsible for promoting and regulating agriculture within a state. The specific duties of the Agriculture Commissioner vary from state to state, but generally include regulating agricultural products, promoting agriculture as an industry, and overseeing various programs related to agriculture, such as crop insurance and farm loans.

Several states have an elected Agriculture Commissioner as part of their state government. The exact title and responsibilities of the Agriculture Commissioner may vary by state, but in general, they play a key role in promoting and regulating agriculture within the state.

Some states that have an elected Agriculture Commissioner include Texas, Georgia, Florida, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and South Carolina. However, it's important to note that this list may not be comprehensive and that some states may have an appointed Agriculture Commissioner instead of an elected one.

Definition and meaning of Automatic Voter Registration (AVR): Automatic Voter Registration is a system that automatically registers eligible citizens to vote when they interact with certain government agencies, such as the Department of Motor Vehicles or a social services office. The goal of AVR is to increase voter turnout and eliminate barriers to voting, such as the need to manually register. Under AVR, eligible citizens are registered to vote unless they opt out. This is in contrast to traditional voter registration systems, in which citizens must actively register to vote.

AVR can also improve the accuracy of voter rolls by linking voter registration information to existing government databases, such as those used to issue driver's licenses or ID cards. This can help to prevent errors and reduce the potential for voter fraud. Additionally, AVR can help to increase voter turnout by making it easier for eligible citizens to register to vote. This can help to ensure that more citizens are able to participate in the democratic process, regardless of their political affiliation.

However, it's important to note that automatic voter registration alone doesn't guarantee that every citizen will vote, or that every vote will be counted. Additionally, AVR doesn't address any issues related to redistricting or gerrymandering, which can also impact voter turnout and representation.

Overall, automatic voter registration is a system that aims to increase voter turnout and eliminate barriers to voting by automatically registering eligible citizens to vote when they interact with certain government agencies, unless they opt out.